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Earth's inner core is 'superionic', a state of matter somewhere between solid and liquid

What is Bitcoin and how does it work?

What Is Bitcoin? Bitcoin is a digital currency that was created in January 2009. It follows the ideas set out in a whitepaper by the mysterious and pseudonymous Satoshi Nakamoto. The identity of the person or persons who created the technology is still a mystery. Bitcoin offers the promise of lower transaction fees than traditional online payment mechanisms and, unlike government-issued currencies, it is operated by a decentralized authority. Bitcoin is a type of cryptocurrency. There are no physical bitcoins, only balances kept on a public ledger that everyone has transparent access to. All bitcoin transactions are verified by a massive amount of computing power. Bitcoins are not issued or backed by any banks or governments, nor are individual bitcoins valuable as a commodity. Despite it not being legal tender, Bitcoin is very popular and has triggered the launch of hundreds of other cryptocurrencies, collectively referred to as altcoins. Bitcoin is commonly abbreviated as “BTC.” Understanding Bitcoin The bitcoin system is a collection of computers (also referred to as “nodes” or “miners”) that all run bitcoin’s code and store its blockchain. Metaphorically, a blockchain can be thought of as a collection of blocks. In each block is a collection of transactions. Because all the computers running the blockchain has the same list of blocks and transactions, and can transparently see these new blocks being filled with new bitcoin transactions, no one can cheat the system. Anyone, whether they run a bitcoin “node” or not, can see these transactions occurring live. In order to achieve a nefarious act, a bad actor would need to operate 51% of the computing power that makes up bitcoin. Bitcoin has around 12,000 nodes, as of January 2021, and this number is growing, making such an attack quite unlikely. But in the event that an attack was to happen, the bitcoin miners—the people who take part in the bitcoin network with their computer—would likely fork to a new blockchain making the effort the bad actor put forth to achieve the attack a waste. Balances of bitcoin tokens are kept using public and private “keys,” which are long strings of numbers and letters linked through the mathematical encryption algorithm that was used to create them. The public key (comparable to a bank account number) serves as the address which is published to the world and to which others may send bitcoins. The private key (comparable to an ATM PIN) is meant to be a guarded secret and only used to authorize bitcoin transmissions. Bitcoin keys should not be confused with a bitcoin wallet, which is a physical or digital device that facilitates the trading of bitcoin and allows users to track ownership of coins. The term “wallet” is a bit misleading, as bitcoin’s decentralized nature means that it is never stored “in” a wallet, but rather decentrally on a blockchain. Peer-to-Peer Technology Bitcoin is one of the first digital currencies to use peer-to-peer technology to facilitate instant payments. The independent individuals and companies who own the governing computing power and participate in the bitcoin network—bitcoin “miners”—are in charge of processing the transactions on the blockchain and are motivated by rewards (the release of new bitcoin) and transaction fees paid in bitcoin. These miners can be thought of as the decentralized authority enforcing the credibility of the bitcoin network. New bitcoin is released to the miners at a fixed, but periodically declining rate. There are only 21 million bitcoin that can be mined in total. As of January 30, 2021, there are approximately 18,614,806 bitcoin in existence and 2,385,193 bitcoin left to be mined. In this way, bitcoin other cryptocurrencies operate differently from fiat currency; in centralized banking systems, currency is released at a rate matching the growth in goods; this system is intended to maintain price stability. A decentralized system, like bitcoin, sets the release rate ahead of time and according to an algorithm. Bitcoin Mining Bitcoin mining is the process by which bitcoins are released into circulation. Generally, mining requires the solving of computationally difficult puzzles in order to discover a new block, which is added to the blockchain. Bitcoin mining adds and verifies transaction records across the network. For adding blocks to the blockchain, miners are rewarded with a few bitcoins; the reward is halved every 210,000 blocks. The block reward was 50 new bitcoins in 2009. On May 11th, 2020, the third halving occurred, bringing the reward for each block discovery down to 6.25 bitcoins. A variety of hardware can be used to mine bitcoin. However, some yield higher rewards than others. Certain computer chips, called Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC), and more advanced processing units, like Graphic Processing Units (GPUs), can achieve more rewards. These elaborate mining processors are known as “mining rigs.” One bitcoin is divisible to eight decimal places (100 millionths of one bitcoin), and this smallest unit is referred to as a Satoshi. If necessary, and if the participating miners accept the change, bitcoin could eventually be made divisible to even more decimal places. History of Bitcoin 18.08.2008: The domain name bitcoin.org is registered. Today, at least, this domain is “WhoisGuard Protected,” meaning the identity of the person who registered it is not public information. 31.10.2008: A person or group using the name Satoshi Nakamoto makes an announcement on the Cryptography Mailing list at metzdowd.com: “I’ve been working on a new electronic cash system that’s fully peer-to-peer, with no trusted third party. This now-famous whitepaper published on bitcoin.org, entitled “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System,” would become the Magna Carta for how Bitcoin operates today. 03.01.2009: The first Bitcoin block is mined, Block 0. This is also known as the “genesis block” and contains the text: “The Times 03.01.2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks,” perhaps as proof that the block was mined on or after that date, and perhaps also as relevant political commentary. 08.01.2009: The first version of the bitcoin software is announced on the Cryptography Mailing list. 09.01.2009: Block 1 is mined, and bitcoin mining >>Read more
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America’s 15 Coolest Ghost Towns to Visit

Take a step back in time while visiting these historic – and slightly spooky – ghost towns. While the term “ghost town” may sound like a village haunted by spirits, it actually refers to an old, abandoned city. America’s western states are full of these towns; many were founded during the mining boom in the late 1800s to serve as home bases for miners. Today, these historically significant areas memorialize the once bustling populations that lived there and give visitors a chance to discover a past filled with mystery, legends, and folklore. St. Elmo, Colorado St. Elmo, located less than 83 miles southeast of Aspen, Colorado, is one of the state’s best-preserved ghost towns. Formed in 1880 for miners in search of gold and silver, the town’s final residents supposedly took the last train out in 1922 – and never returned. Today, you can visit St. Elmo by car or all-terrain vehicle to see several wooden storefronts, including the general store. For the ultimate mountain getaway, rent a log cabin. The infamous town of Tin Cup, Colorado, which is known for its ties to shady Wild West outlaws and a spooky town cemetery, also sits nearby. Nevada City, Montana While enjoying Montana’s blue skies and breathtaking scenery, make a pit stop in Nevada City, a ghost town situated roughly 90 miles northwest of Yellowstone National Park. The restored former gold mining town boasts many original log structures along with a collection of antique music boxes, player pianos, and calliopes. Admission starts at $8 for adults and $6 for kids ages 5 to 16 (younger travelers get in for free). During their visits, travelers can pan for gold, watch live reenactments of past events and embark on a 20-minute train ride between Nevada City and Virginia City, Montana. Stay the night in an authentic pioneer cabin or at the historic Nevada City Hotel, a former 1860s stage stop. Spokane, South Dakota Located about 10 miles southeast of Mount Rushmore National Memorial in South Dakota’s the Black Hills, Spokane features one of the area’s largest collections of original ghost town buildings. You’ll need to hike about a half-mile from the road to reach the town, which was built in 1890 near a mine with gold, silver, copper, and more. Once in Spokane, you’ll find a large schoolhouse and several old cars lining the streets. To really set the scene, look for the grave that tells the story of a prospector who was shot and killed here. Just be sure to stay outside the abandoned structures, as they are crumbling. When you’re ready to retire for the night, head approximately 5 miles northwest to one of several hotels in Keystone, South Dakota. Goodsprings, Nevada If you’re visiting Las Vegas and want to feel as if you’ve stepped back in time, consider taking a day trip to Goodsprings, Nevada. Situated approximately 40 miles southwest of Sin City, this old mining town is home to around 200 people. It’s where you’ll find the Pioneer Saloon, which was built in 1913 and is said to be haunted by the ghost of 1930s movie star Carole Lombard, who died in a plane crash nearby. The saloon, where many movies have been filmed, offers a Haunted Lockdown tour that lets you relive the experiences of the TV show crew who filmed “Ghost Adventures” there in 2013. Goldfield, Arizona Situated along the Apache Trail about 40 miles east of Phoenix, Goldfield is known as the “gateway to the Superstition Mountains.” The town – which was home to multiple saloons, a boarding house, a blacksmith shop, a general store, and a schoolhouse in the 1890s – will give you a true taste of the Wild West as you watch a live reenactment of a gunfight, ride the state’s only narrow gauge train and pan for gold. Other fun things to do include touring the local gold mine and going zip lining, horseback riding, and target shooting. Book a stay at Santa Maria Place, a four-bedroom home located less than 33 miles away, through the luxury vacation rental website ThirdHome Rentals. Blue Heron, Kentucky Get a dose of history in this abandoned mining community along the Big South Fork River near the Kentucky-Tennessee border. The mine, which was in operation from 1937 to 1962, features structures built in the 1980s to mimic those originally found on-site. Each building shares information about a different part of life in the mining camp through audio tours. Once a year, travelers can hop aboard the Big South Fork Blue Heron Ghost Train to visit the abandoned camp at night while listening to spooky tales. The free trip starts with live music, and visitors are advised to bring a flashlight. Vacationers will find comfortable accommodations at DuPont Lodge, which sits roughly 30 miles northeast of Cumberland Falls State Resort Park. South Pass City, Wyoming See 24 19th-century buildings at one of Wyoming’s largest historic sites. Open to visitors every year from mid-May to mid-October, South Pass City once featured more than 30 gold mines. The town also played an important role in women’s history: It is where a bill was passed to make Wyoming the first territory where women could vote and hold public office and are where the country’s first female judge served. After travelers immerse themselves in South Pass City’s past, they can venture 34 miles northeast to Lander, Wyoming, where everything from smaller boutique hotels, such as The Mill House, to larger properties like the Shoshone Rose Casino & Hotel, is available. Independence, Colorado Located just off the Independence Pass section of U.S. Highway 82, the town of Independence is an easy stop on the way to or from Aspen. The town was founded in 1880 but was deserted just 19 years later when miners wearing wooden skis made from the town’s dismantled cabins left in droves during a severe winter storm. Today, you can wander through several original buildings, including stables, a general store, and a cabin. You can even see >>Read more
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Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Vaccines

Is there a vaccine for COVID-19? Yes there are now several vaccines that are in use. The first mass vaccination programme started in early December 2020 and as of and as of 15 February 2021, 175.3 million vaccine doses have been administered. At least 7 different vaccines (3 platforms) have been administered. WHO issued an Emergency Use Listing (EULs) for the Pfizer COVID-19 vaccine (BNT162b2) on 31 December 2020. On 15 February 2021, WHO issued EULs for two versions of the AstraZeneca/Oxford COVID-19 vaccine, manufactured by the Serum Institute of India and SKBio. WHO is on track to EUL other vaccine products through June. The products and progress in regulatory review by WHO is provided by WHO and updated regularly. Once vaccines are demonstrated to be safe and efficacious, they must be authorized by national regulators, manufactured to exacting standards, and distributed. WHO is working with partners around the world to help coordinate key steps in this process, including to facilitate equitable access to safe and effective COVID-19 vaccines for the billions of people who will need them. When will COVID-19 vaccines be ready for distribution? The first COVID-19 vaccines have already begun to be introduced in countries. Before COVID-19 vaccines can be delivered: The vaccines must be proven safe and effective in large (phase III) clinical trials. Some COVID-19 vaccine candidates have completed their phase III trials, and many other potential vaccines are being developed. Independent reviews of the efficacy and safety evidence is required for each vaccine candidate, including regulatory review and approval in the country where the vaccine is manufactured, before WHO considers a vaccine candidate for prequalification. Part of this process also involves the Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety. In addition to review of the data for regulatory purposes, the evidence must also be reviewed for the purpose of policy recommendations on how the vaccines should be used. An external panel of experts convened by WHO, called the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE), analyzes the results from clinical trials, along with evidence on the disease, age groups affected, risk factors for disease, programmatic use, and other information. SAGE then recommends whether and how the vaccines should be used. Officials in individual countries decide whether to approve the vaccines for national use and develop policies for how to use the vaccines in their country based on the WHO recommendations. The vaccines must be manufactured in large quantities, which is a major and unprecedented challenge – all the while continuing to produce all the other important life-saving vaccines already in use. As a final step, all approved vaccines will require distribution through a complex logistical process, with rigorous stock management and temperature control. WHO is working with partners around the world to accelerate every step of this process, while also ensuring the highest safety standards are met. More information is available here. Will COVID-19 vaccines provide long-term protection? Because COVID vaccines have only been developed in the past months, it’s too early to know the duration of protection of COVID-19 vaccines. Research is ongoing to answer this question. However, it’s encouraging that available data suggest that most people who recover from COVID-19 develop an immune response that provides at least some period of protection against reinfection – although we’re still learning how strong this protection is, and how long it lasts. How quickly could COVID-19 vaccines stop the pandemic? The impact of COVID-19 vaccines on the pandemic will depend on several factors. These include the effectiveness of the vaccines; how quickly they are approved, manufactured, and delivered; the possible development of other variants and how many people get vaccinated Whilst trials have shown several COVID-19 vaccines to have high levels of efficacy, like all other vaccines, COVID-19 vaccines will not be 100% effective. WHO is working to help ensure that approved vaccines are as effective as possible, so they can have the greatest impact on the pandemic. What types of COVID-19 vaccines are being developed? How would they work? Scientists around the world are developing many potential vaccines for COVID-19. These vaccines are all designed to teach the body’s immune system to safely recognize and block the virus that causes COVID-19. Several different types of potential vaccines for COVID-19 are in development, including: Inactivated or weakened virus vaccines, which use a form of the virus that has been inactivated or weakened so it doesn’t cause disease, but still generates an immune response. Protein-based vaccines, which use harmless fragments of proteins or protein shells that mimic the COVID-19 virus to safely generate an immune response. Viral vector vaccines, which use a safe virus that cannot cause disease but serves as a platform to produce coronavirus proteins to generate an immune response. RNA and DNA vaccines, a cutting-edge approach that uses genetically engineered RNA or DNA to generate a protein that itself safely prompts an immune response. For more information about all COVID-19 vaccines in development, see this WHO publication, which is being updated regularly. Will other vaccines help protect me from COVID-19? Currently, there is no evidence that any other vaccines, apart from those specifically designed for the SARS-Cov-2 virus, will protect against COVID-19. However, scientists are studying whether some existing vaccines – such as the Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, which is used to prevent tuberculosis – are also effective for COVID-19. WHO will evaluate evidence from these studies when available. What are the benefits of getting vaccinated? The COVID-19 vaccines produce protection against the disease, as a result of developing an immune response to the SARS-Cov-2 virus. Developing immunity through vaccination means there is a reduced risk of developing the illness and its consequences. This immunity helps you fight the virus if exposed. Getting vaccinated may also protect people around you, because if you are protected from getting infected and from disease, you are less likely to infect someone else. This is particularly important to protect people at increased risk for severe illness from COVID-19, such as healthcare providers, older or elderly adults, >>Read more
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Avoiding scams after a disaster

Don’t be a victim of dishonest service providers If your home was destroyed by a hurricane, wildfire or other disaster, be cautious. Unfortunately, there are dishonest service providers that prey on disaster victims. They know that people who have lost their homes and valuables may not be thinking clearly. If you have suffered this type of loss, don’t make any rash decisions. Talk to your insurance agent, who may recommend service providers in your area. Here are some basic guidelines for hiring service providers. Roofers and builders Don’t be rushed into signing a contract with any company. Instead, collect business cards and get written estimates for the proposed job. Beware of building contractors that encourage you to spend a lot of money on temporary repairs. Payments for temporary repairs are covered as part of the total settlement. If you pay a contractor a large sum for a temporary repair job, you may not have enough money for permanent repairs. In most cases, you should be able to make the temporary repairs yourself. Ask your insurance agent. And remember to keep receipts. Investigate the track record of any roofer, builder or contractor that you consider hiring. Look for professionals that have a solid reputation in your community. You can call your Better Business Bureau for help. Also, get references and never give anyone a deposit until after you have thoroughly researched their background. A common fraud scheme is for a so-called “contractor” to convince a homeowner that a large deposit must be provided before repair work can begin. Frequently, the job will be started, but not completed. Unfortunately, these con artists are never seen or heard from again. Public adjusters and attorneys Don’t make any rash decisions about hiring someone to handle your claim. Be especially wary of individuals who go door-to-door soliciting business in the aftermath of a catastrophe. Most importantly, don’t let anyone scare you into signing a contract. You don’t want to be victimized by someone who comes into town, hoping to make a fast buck. You could end up forfeiting a significant portion of your insurance dollars. Before hiring a public adjuster or an attorney, try to settle your claim directly with your insurance company. Your insurer provides an adjuster at no charge to you. Ask your insurance agent or company representative to help you with your claim and don’t be afraid to ask questions. If you decide to work directly with your insurer, you still have the right to hire a third-party professional to help you. If your claim is complicated and you want to hire a public adjuster or attorney, make sure that person is qualified to handle your case. Ask your friends, relatives or business associates for the names of well-regarded professionals in your community. Also, call your state insurance department regarding a public adjuster, and your state or county bar association about a prospective attorney. Understand that you will have to pay a public adjuster 15 percent and an attorney as much as 30 percent of your total claim settlement.
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What is a beneficiary?

A beneficiary is the person or entity you name in a life insurance policy to receive the death benefit. You can name: One person Two or more people The trustee of a trust you’ve set up A charity Your estate If you don’t name a beneficiary, the death benefit will be paid to your estate. Two “levels” of beneficiaries Your life insurance policy should have both “primary” and “contingent” beneficiaries. The primary beneficiary gets the death benefits if he or she can be found after your death. Contingent beneficiaries get the death benefits if the primary beneficiary can’t be found. If no primary or contingent beneficiaries can be found, the death benefit will be paid to your estate. As part of naming beneficiaries, you should identify them as clearly as possible and include their social security numbers. This will make it easier for the life insurance company to find them, and it will make it less likely that disputes will arise regarding the death benefits. For example, if you write “wife [or husband] of the insured” without using a specific name, an ex-spouse could claim the death benefit. On the other hand, if you have named specific children, any later-born or adopted children will not receive the death benefit—unless you change the beneficiary designation to include them. Besides naming beneficiaries, you should specify how the benefits are to be handled if one or more beneficiaries can’t be found. For example, suppose you have two children and you name each one to receive half of the death benefit. If one of the children dies before you do, do you want the other child to get the entire death benefit, or the deceased child’s heirs to get his or her share? If the death benefit goes to your estate, probate proceedings could delay distributing the money, and the cost of probate could diminish the amount available to your heirs. Choosing beneficiaries, and keeping those choices up-to-date, is an important part of owning life insurance. The birth or adoption of a child, marriage or divorce can affect your initial choice. Review your beneficiary designation as new situations arise in order to make sure your choice is still appropriate.
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